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Abstract: Groundwater which occurs in fractured rock or porous aquifers or other geological weak zones such as faults and fractures is usually extracted via boreholes, hand wells or other sources such as springs. Water scarcity has become a severe problem due to many factors, such as an alarming increase in population and per capita water consumption, over exploitation of groundwater resources and abrupt global climatic change along with its related eco-environmental geological problems. In such situation, application of artificial recharge systems (e.g. surface recharge basin and deep injection well systems) can help to effectively manage and augment the unitization of groundwater resources. However, the clogging problem, which may be caused by a complex interdependent mechanisms of physical, chemical and biological has been a challenge for the efficacy and the implementation of recharge facilities. Clogging can reduce the permeability, recharge rate and longevity of recharge facilities and increase the operational and maintenance costs. Major influencing factors associated with the occurrence of clogging include the chemical composition of groundwater (both the recharge water and native groundwater), aquifer medium and microbial diversity, together with other environmental factors such as temperature, pressure, total dissolved solids, total soluble salts, pH, Eh, nutrients, gases, carbonates and others; these factors ultimately increase the piezometric head but reduce the permeability and infiltration rates of porous/seepage media. Pretreatment of recharge water can minimize the potential clogging. In the case of clogged wells, rehabilitation methods need to be deployed. In the meantime, there is an urgent needs to understand the basic causes and developmental processes/mechanisms of clogging in order to mitigate this problem. This paper reviews the major clogging mechanisms and their possible preventive measures and redevelopments in artificial recharge systems.
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Key words:
- Artificial recharge /
- Clogging mechanisms /
- Groundwater /
- Prevention /
- Redevelopment
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Figure 1. Conceptual framework of the types of clogging that can occur during the recharge process
Figure 2. (a) Physical clogging due to the suspended particles initially presented in the injected water; (b) Physical clogging due to the presence of fine soil particles from the aquifer; (c) Lay out of microbial biofilm that can cause bio-clogging; (d-f) Deposited insoluble iron flakes produced upon the oxidation of soluble iron (Fe2+) in a column experiment resulting in chemical clogging
Figure 3. Integrated strategy to minimize clogging problem in artificial groundwater recharge systems
Figure 4. Rehabilitation approaches for restoration of injection wells with clogged aquifers (Martin, 2013; Hoon et al. 2017)
Figure 5. Schematic layout for (a) vertically closed and (b) open loop heat pump systems depicting the cooling mode in summer and heating mode in winter seasons for different engineering structures
Figure 6. Experimental setup to test charcoal (size 2-4 mm) potential to remove iron from groundwater in upward flow mode
Figure 7. Fe-concentrations in effluents from different ports (P1-P6) and in blank groundwater (BW1) after 6 days in a column experiment with upward flow mode of groundwater
Figure 8. Iron and manganese concentrations in the effluents collected at 90-minute interval (i.e. ΔT = T1−T0 = 90 min) and in blank water (BW) in downward flow mode of groundwater
Figure 9. Experimental site for testing filtering material to minimize iron induced clogging issue.
Table 1. Major clogging types and various influencing factors/causes and processes
Clogging types Factors/causes Processes Physical (i) The presence of suspended matter such as inorganic (clay, silt, etc.) and organic (organic matter, algae, sludge, etc.) in recharge water
(ii) Presence of colloidal material and dispersal of clay particles due to ion exchange between recharging water and aquifers
(iii) Mechanical compaction of aquifer materials due to high injection processes(i) Filtration and deposition of suspended solids (SS) by the porous media, i.e. Filter function (diameter of SS > diameter of media pores) and deposition function (SS deposition on the pore wall due to gravity)
*(ii) Swelling of clays and dispersion
*(iii) Mechanical jamming and mobilization of aquifer sedimentsChemical (i) Recharge water (aerobic), and native groundwater (anaerobic) containing soluble iron and manganese and aquifer material producing insoluble precipitates of iron and manganese oxides or hydroxides, e.g. formation of iron flakes from native ground water due to recharge of water with a pH and Eh in the range of ferric iron
(ii) Mineral gradients of aquifers
(iii) Environmental factors such as temperature and pressure, etc.
(iv) Entrained air in recharge water(i) Blending and geochemical reactions between the recharge water and native groundwater resulting in the formation and chemical precipitations of insoluble precipitates of Fe and Mn (hydr)oxides
(ii) Mixing of cooler recharge water with native groundwater and the removal of dissolved air from the solution, i.e. the presence of air bubbles in the recharge water entering a well resulting in air entrapment or entrainment
*(iii) Release of dissolved gases resulting in pore blocking air pockets in the aquifer, termed as air binding
(iv) Dissolution/precipitations of CaCO3 due to changes in pH and CO2Biological (i) The growth of bacteria (e.g. iron and manganese) and algae in the gravel pack and the surrounding formation
(ii) The concentration of dissolved organic carbon (DOC), organic material, total nitrate, total phosphorus, and temperature etc.
(iii) Microbial mediated gas productions (nitrogen, methane, CO2)(i) Development of microbial growth and accumulation of cell bodies in the porous medium resulting in biofilms
(ii) The production of bacterial extracellular polymers or polysaccharides forming soil-clogging biomass
(iii) Microbial mediated accumulation of insoluble precipitates and redox products
(iv) The entrapment of gaseous products resulting in soil pore blocking*Clogging due to clay swelling and dispersion, mechanical jamming and air entrapment can be categorized into separate clogging categories. 
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Table 2. Preventive measures and redevelopment methods in artificial recharge systems
Types Approach Methods Physical Prevention (1) Coagulation (coagulants like alum and organic polymers in surface system), flocculation, precipitation, and filtration (sand or membrane filters for well recharge) to remove particles, (2) Pre-sedimentation to settle clay, silt and other suspended solids in surface system, (3) For injection wells and deep systems, periodic pumping and backwashing, (4) For surface infiltration systems-recharge cycle approach i.e. alternative/periodic use and drying (letting the clogging layer dry, decompose, shrink, crack, and curl up) followed by mechanical removing, disking, crust breaking, plowing of clogging layers, smoothing, lightly soil compacting by rolling or dragging etc. (5) In soil compaction of surface system, limit the recharge water height/depth. Redevelopment (1) In deep systems, pumping, high pressure jetting chemicals (disinfectants and acids), fluid based methods, and recharge protocols, (2) In surface systems, during operations, filtration (mats, filters), enhance natural factors (aeration, avoid light), and other methods like underwater robot to scrap clogging layer, (3) In surface systems, between operations, mechanical methods (tillage, scraping), natural methods (basin drying & freezing) etc. Chemical Prevention (1) Acidification, (2) Daily pumping, (3) Separate strata, (4) Avoid oxygen, (5) In case of gas generation, recharge water having temperature > groundwater temperature. Redevelopment (1) In deep systems (i) use of specific chemicals e.g. chlorine, acids and polyphosphates etc. (ii) hydro-mechanical methods, and (iii) TV surveys and scrapping borehole wells by brushing etc. (2) In surface systems (i) use of chemicals (calcium based) during operations, and (ii) acid baths to remove carbonated deposits between operations. Biological Prevention 1. For bacteria: (i) Disinfection (chlorine and other disinfectants), (ii) Reduction of nutrients, (iii) Limit input concentration (reduction of organic carbon level by using activated carbon filtration and/or reverse osmosis or other membrane filtration), (iv) Oxidizers, (v) Acidifiers.
2. For algae (surface systems): (i) Filtration, (ii) Reduction of nutrients (P and N), (iii) Chemicals, (iv) Avoid direct sun light.Redevelopment (1) In deep systems, for bioclogging (i) pumping, (ii) chemicals, (iii) mechanical/physically based methods, (iv) combination of methods. Generic Prevention (1) Appropriate water treatment, (2) Minimize aeration (wells), (3) proper lay out and designing, (4) Install high water alarms. Redevelopment (1) Flow reversal pumping promote detachment, (2) Dosing of specific chemicals (disinfectants, acids), (3) Fluid based injection methods, (4) Adoption of recharge protocols.
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Table 3. Recommended values of recharge water quality and basic parameters for clogging prevention and redevelopment in deep and surface recharge systems
Recommended basic parametric values Simplified guidelines/Criterion for clogging Clogging types Recommended values Clogging intensity Parametric values Redevelopment Physical Well injection (deep systems) 1TSS<2 mg/L when (K>40 m/d),
1,2,9TSS<0.1 mg/L when (4m/d<K<40 m/d),
3MFI<3-5 s/L2, 2,4,9Turbidity<1 NTUDeep Systems TSS<10 mg/L, Turbidity<5 NTU, TOC<10 mg/L Frequent pumping, Monthly surging/jetting Surface recharge (surface system) TSS<10 mg/L,
Turbidity <5 NTUTSS = 10-20 mg/L, TOC = 10-25 mg/L Daily pumping, Weekly surging/jetting Chemical 5[Fe2+]<11.2 mg/L, 6pH<7.5,
6low [Ca2+][Mg2+],
6TDS<150 mg/L,
6[Cl-] <500 mg/L
6Ryznar index>7
7Saturation index of mineralIncreased TSS>20 mg/L,
TOC>25 mg/LDaily pumping,
Adapted protocolSurface systems TSS<10 mg/L, Turbidity<5 NTU, TOC<10 mg/L Natural drying & cracking, Annually-mechanical Biological Well injection (deep systems) 8pH>7.2,
8Avoid CO2,
8,9DOC<2 mg/L, 8Eh>10 mVTSS = 10-20 mg/L, TOC = 10-25 mg/L Frequent drying and cracking, Biannually-mechanical Surface recharge (surface system) Increased TOC<10 mg/L TSS>20 mg/L, TOC>25 mg/L Pre-filtration Note: 1Pyne (1995); 2Dutch standards (Peters, pers. Comm.); 3Olsthoorn (1995); 4German standards (Schöttler, pers. Comm.); 5Lucas et al. (1995); 6Ford (1990); 7Hills et al. (1989); 8Degalier (1987); 9Stuyfzand et al. (2005)
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