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Abstract: Asia stands out as the most populous and geographically diverse region globally. The pressing issues of water resource development and the resulting ecological impacts are exacerbated by the region's rapid population growth and economic expansion. Groundwater, a vital source of water in Asia, faces significant disparities in distribution and suffers from unsustainable exploitation practices. This study applies groundwater system theory and categorizes Asia into 11 primary groundwater systems and 36 secondary ones, based on intercontinental geological structures, climate, terrain, and hydrogeological characteristics. As of the end of 2010, Asia's assessed groundwater resources totalled 4.677×109 m3/a, with exploitable resources amounting to 3.274×109 m3/a. By considering the geological environmental impacts of groundwater development and the distinctive characteristics of terrain and landforms, six categories of effect zones with varying distribution patterns are identified. The current research on Asia's groundwater resources, environmental dynamics, and human impacts aims to provide a theoretical foundation for sustainable groundwater management and environmental conservation in the region.
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Key words:
- Asia /
- Groundwater resources /
- Groundwater quality /
- Ecological environment /
- Environmental impacts
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Figure 1. Asian groundwater systems
Notes: Ⅰ1—Groundwater system in Ob River Basin of west Siberia Plain；Ⅰ2—Groundwater system in Yenisei River Basin of central Siberia Plateau；Ⅰ3—Groundwater system in Lena river Basin of central Siberia Plateau；Ⅰ4—Groundwater system in Kolyma River Basin of eastern Siberia；Ⅱ1—Groundwater system in Heilongjiang River (Amur River)；Ⅱ2—Groundwater system in Liaohe River Plain-Korea Peninsula；Ⅱ3—Groundwater system in islands of northeastern Asia；Ⅲ1—Groundwater system in Huang-Huai-Hai Plain-Shandong Peninsula；Ⅲ2—Groundwater system in Shanxi-Hebei intermontane basin；Ⅲ3—Groundwater system in Ordos-Loess Plateau；Ⅳ1—Groundwater system in Mongolia Plateau；Ⅳ2—Groundwater system in Hexi Corridor；Ⅳ3—Groundwater system in Ili River Basin-Junggar Basin；Ⅳ4—Groundwater system in Tarim Basin；Ⅳ5—Groundwater system in Qaidam Basin；Ⅳ6—Groundwater system in Kazakhstan hilly area-Tulan Plain；Ⅴ1—Groundwater system in Asia Minor Peninsula(Anatolia Plateau)；Ⅴ2—Groundwater system in Iran Plateau；Ⅵ1—Groundwater system in Mesopotamian plain；Ⅵ2—Groundwater system in Arabian Peninsula；Ⅶ1—Groundwater system in Kashmir- Himalaya-Qiangtang Plateau；Ⅶ2—Groundwater system in southern Tibet valley；Ⅷ1—Groundwater system in India River Plain；Ⅷ2—Groundwater system in Ganges River Plain；Ⅷ3—Groundwater system in India Peninsula；Ⅸ1—Groundwater system in upland and plain of Lancangjiang River- Salween River Basin；Ⅸ2—Groundwater system in upland and plain of Lancangjiang River-Meikong River Basins；Ⅸ3—Groundwater system in upland and plain of Red River Basin；Ⅹ1—Groundwater system in Qinling-Dabieshan Mountains；Ⅹ2—Groundwater system in terraced terrain of west Sichuan Plateau；Ⅹ3—Groundwater system in Sichuan Basin；Ⅹ4—Groundwater system in hilly area of middle and lower reaches of Yangtze River；Ⅹ5—Groundwater system in karst upland of South China；Ⅹ6—Groundwater system in coastal hilly area and islands of South China；Ⅺ1—Groundwater system in Malay peninsula；Ⅺ2—Groundwater system in islands of southeast Asia.
Table 1. Summary of natural groundwater resources in aquifers in Asia (109 m3/a)
Aquifer type Natural recharge resources Percentage of total Continuous aquifers in plains and intermountain basins 2,424.65 52% Discontinuous aquifers in hills and mountains with bedrock 1,866.95 40% Sparse aquifers 386.14 8% Total 4,677.74 100% 
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Table 2. Average recharge modulus of groundwater systems in Asia
Code Groundwater system Main areas covered Average recharge modulus
(104 m3/a·km2)I Sub-humid temperate groundwater system of North Asia Plateau and Highland Ob River in Western Siberian Plain, Yenisei River in Central Siberian Plateau, Lena River and Kolyma River in Eastern Siberia 8.12 II Sub-humid temperate groundwater system of mountainous and plain Northeast Asia Amur River in Heilongjiang, Liaohe Plain-Korean Peninsula, and Northeast Asia Island Group 8.89 III Semi-arid temperate groundwater system of North China Plain, Mountain, and Loess Plateau Huaihe-Haihe Plain-Shandong Peninsula, Jin-Ji Mountain Basin, Ordos-Loess Plateau 12.83 IV Arid temperate groundwater system of Inland Basins and Hilly Mountains Mongolian Plateau, Hexi Corridor, Ili River-Junggar Basin, Tarim Basin, Qaidam Basin, and Kazakh Hills-Turpan Plain 11.67 V Arid to sub-humid tropical groundwater system of Iran Plateau and Anatolian Peninsula Anatolian Peninsula (Anatolian Plateau) and Iran Plateau 5.76 VI Arid tropical groundwater system of Arabian Peninsula and Mesopotamian Plain Mesopotamian Plain and Arabian Peninsula 5.35 VII Subarctic groundwater system of Qinghai-Tibet Plateau Kashmir-Himalayas-Qinghai-Tibet Plateau and Southern Tibet Valley 23.8 VIII Tropical wet-humid to Sub-humid groundwater system of South Asia two River Plain and Deccan Plateau Indus River Plain, Ganges River Plain, and Deccan Plateau in India 15.44 IX Tropical wet groundwater system of Mountainous Hills of Mainland Southeast Asia Nujiang-Salween River Mountain Valley Plain, Lancang River-Mekong River Mountain Plain, and Red River Mountain Plain 10.03 X Subtropical wet groundwater system of Mountainous and Plain Southern China Qinling-Dabie Mountain Region, Western Slopes of Sichuan Basin, Sichuan Basin, Hilly Plains in Middle and Lower Yangtze River, Karst Mountains in Southern China, and Coastal Hills and Islands in Southern China 11.68 XI Equatorial humid tropical groundwater system of Southeast Asian Island Group Malay Peninsula and Southeast Asian Island Group 15.34 Overall Asia Region - 10.55
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Table 3. Groundwater resources in primary groundwater systems in Asia (109 m3/a)
Code Primary groundwater system Natural recharge resources Exploitable resources I North Asian Plateau and Highland Cold Temperate Groundwater System 1,007.45 705.21 II Northeast Asia Mountainous and Plain Temperate Semi-Humid Groundwater System 323.42 226.39 III North China Plain, Mountainous, and Loess Plateau Temperate Semi-Arid Groundwater System 165.86 116.1 IV Inland Basin and Hill Mountain Temperate Arid Groundwater System 845.67 591.97 V Iranian Plateau - Anatolian Peninsula Subtropical Arid, Semi-Humid Groundwater System 157.51 110.26 VI Arabian Peninsula - Mesopotamian Plain Tropical Arid Groundwater System 213.6 149.52 VII Qinghai-Tibet Plateau Cold Highland Groundwater System 490.96 343.67 VIII South Asia Two Rivers Plain - Deccan Plateau Tropical Wet-Semi-Wet Groundwater System 587.8 411.46 IX Indochina Peninsula Mountainous Hilly Tropical Wet Groundwater System 201.66 141.16 X South China Mountainous Hilly and Plain Subtropical Wet Groundwater System 309.9 216.93 XI Southeast Asia Island Group Equatorial Humid Groundwater System 357.45 250.21
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