Haile Tadelle Abadi; Weldegebriel Haile; Negasi Gebremedhin

doi:10.26599/JGSE.2026.9280075

doi: 10.26599/JGSE.2026.9280075

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出版历程
- 收稿日期: 2025-01-25
- 录用日期: 2025-12-17
- 网络出版日期: 2026-04-30
- 刊出日期: 2026-06-30

Groundwater quality evaluation for irrigation using irrigation water quality indexes under GIS framework in Aksum Area, Northern Ethiopia

1.
Department of Geology, Faculty of Mines, Aksum University, Shire, Ethiopia
2.
School of Earth Sciences, College of Natural and Computational Sciences, Mekelle University, Mekelle, Tigray, Ethiopia

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Corresponding author: hailetadele2009@gmail.com

摘要

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Abstract: This study evaluates the suitability of irrigation water in the semi-arid region of Aksum, northern Ethiopia. An integrated approach combining the Irrigation Water Quality Index (IWQI) and ArcGIS-based spatial analysis was applied to assess the spatial variability of irrigation water quality. Twenty-five groundwater samples were collected and analyzed for key physicochemical parameters and heavy metals using standard laboratory techniques. Exceedances of recommended irrigation water limits were recorded for magnesium (16%), nitrate (32%), salinity hazard (12%), total dissolved solids (20%), total hardness (60%), residual sodium carbonate (16%), kelly index (4%), and magnesium ratio (32%). Based on the Irrigation Water Quality Index (IWQI), 36% of the samples fell under high restriction, 32% under moderate restriction, 24% under severe restriction, and 8% under low restriction for irrigation use. Although most of groundwater sources are suitable based on individual water quality parameters, the IWQI indicates that a significant portion of samples requires restricted use for irrigation. This highlights the need for targeted groundwater management strategies to mitigate localized risks associated with salinity and sodicity. The integrated IWQI-GIS approach demonstrated in this study is readily transferable to other arid and semi-arid regions, providing a robust tool for sustainable irrigation management and climate-resilient agricultural planning.
- Hydrogeochemistry /
- Spatial analysis /
- Irrigation water suitability /
- Agricultural water management /
- Semi-arid climate /
- IWQI

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Figure 1. Location and physiographic map of the study area

(a) Study area showing groundwater sampling points, streams and other water bodies; (b) Physiographic map of the study area.

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Figure 2. Land use and land cover (LULC) map of the study area

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Figure 3. Soil characteristics (texture) of the study area

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Figure 4. Geological map of the study area with sampling points and major geological structure

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Figure 5. Hydrogeological map of the study area

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Figure 6. Borehole log of selected areas with borehole samples (Sb9, Sb3, Db1, Sb10 and Db6)

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Figure 7. Diagrams illustrating the mechanisms controlling groundwater chemistry

(a, b) Gibbs diagrams showing the mechanisms controlling groundwater chemistry; (c) Scatter diagram of Cl⁻ against SO₄²⁻; (d) Scatter diagram of Cl⁻ against NO₃⁻.

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Figure 8. Concentrations of heavy metals in water samples

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Figure 9. Classification of water samples based on salinity (EC) and sodium hazard (according to Wilcox, 1955)

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Figure 10. Spatial distribution of irrigation water quality parameters in the study area

Notes: Including electrical conductivity (EC), total dissolved solids (TDS), total hardness (TH), sodium adsorption ratio (SAR), residual sodium carbonate (RSC), sodium percentage (Na%), Kelly index (KI), permeability index (PI), magnesium ratio (MR), and potential salinity (PS). The corresponding classification criteria and suitability classes are indicated in the legend.

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Figure 11. Wilcox's (1955) diagram showing the relation between sodium percent and salinity hazard (EC)

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Figure 12. Doneen diagram of permeability index against the total concentration of ions (Doneen, 1975)

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Figure 13. Spatial distribution of the Irrigation Water Quality Index (IWQI) in the study area

(a) Spatial distribution of IWQI in relation to physiographic characteristics; (b) Spatial distribution of IWQI in relation to soil texture classes.

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Table 1. Parameters, equations, and irrigation suitability classes used in the study area

Parameters	Equations	Range	Classification	References
EC (µS/cm)		<250	Excellent	Richards (1954)
		250–750	Good
		750–2,250	Permissible
		2,250–4,000	Doubtful
TDS (mg/L)		<1,000	Non-saline	Robinove et al. (1958)
		1,000–3,000	Slightly saline
		3,000–10,000	Moderately saline
		>10,000	Very saline
TH (mg/L)		<75	Soft	Vasanthavigar (2013)
		75–150	Moderate
		150–300	Hard
		>300	Very hard
SAR (meq/L)	$ {(\text{Na}}^{+})/\sqrt{{[(\text{Ca}}^{2+}+{\text{Mg}}^{2+})/2]} $	<10	Excellent	Richards (1954)
		10–18	Good
		18–26	Doubtful
		>26	Unsuitable
RSC (meq/L)	(HCO₃⁻+CO₃²⁻)-(Ca²⁺+Mg²⁺)	<1.25	Good	Richards (1954)
		1.25–2.5	Medium
		>2.5	Unsuitable
Na%	$ [({\text{Na}}^{+}+{\mathrm{K}}^{+})/({\text{Ca}}^{2+}+{\text{Mg}}^{2+}+{\mathrm{K}}^{+}+{\text{Na}}^{+})]\times 100 $	<20	Excellent	Wilcox (1955)
		20–40	Good
		40–60	Permissible
		60–80	Doubtful
		>80	Unsuitable
KI (meq/L)	$ [({\text{Na}}^{+})/{\text{Ca}}^{2+}+{\text{Mg}}^{2+})] $	<1	Suitable	Kelly (1963)
KI (meq/L)	$ [({\text{Na}}^{+})/{\text{Ca}}^{2+}+{\text{Mg}}^{2+})] $	>1	Unsuitable	Kelly (1963)
PI%	$ \left[\left[{\text{Na}}^{+}+\sqrt{{{{\text{HCO}}_{3}}}^{-}]}/{\text{Ca}}^{2+}+{\text{Mg}}^{2+}+{\text{Na}}^{+}\right]\right]\times 100 $	<25	Unsuitable	Doneen (1975)
		25–75	Moderate
		>75	Suitable
MR%	$ [({\text{Mg}}^{2+})/{\text{Ca}}^{2+}+{\text{Mg}}^{2+})]\times 100 $	<50	Suitable	Paliwal (1976)
MR%		>50	Unsuitable	Paliwal (1976)
PS (meq/L)	$ {\text{Cl}}^{-}+\dfrac{1}{2}\mathrm{SO}_4^{2-} $	<5	Excellent to good	Doneen (1975)
		5–10	Good to injurious
		>10	Injurious to un satisfactory

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Table 2. Normalized weight (w_i) for the IWQI calculation and the parameter threshold values for the quality measurement (Q_i) calculation (Meireles et al. 2010; Ayers and Westcot, 1985).

Q_i	EC (dS/m)	SAR (meq/L)^1/2	Na⁺ (meq/L)	Cl⁻ (meq/L)	HCO₃⁻ (meq/L)
85–100	0.20 ≤ EC < 0.75	2 ≤ SAR < 3	2 ≤ Na⁺ < 3	1 ≤ Cl < 4	1 ≤ HCO₃⁻ < 1.5
60–85	0.75 ≤ EC< 1.50	3 ≤ SAR< 6	3 ≤ Na⁺ < 6	4 ≤ Cl <7	1.5 ≤ HCO₃⁻ < 4.5
35–60	1.50 ≤ EC < 3.00	6 ≤ SAR < 12	6 ≤ Na⁺ < 9	7 ≤ Cl < 10	4.5 ≤ HCO₃⁻ < 8.5
0–35	EC < 0.2 or EC ≥ 3.00	SAR < 2 or SAR ≥ 12	Na⁺ < 2 or Na⁺ ≥ 9	Cl < 1 or Cl ≥ 10	HCO₃⁻ < 1 or HCO₃⁻ ≥ 8.5
Weight (w_i)	0.211	0.189	0.204	0.194	0.202

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Table 3. Water quality index characteristics classification (Meireles et al. 2010)

IWQI	Restrictions on water use	Recommendation
IWQI	Restrictions on water use	Soil	Plant
85–100	No Restriction required (NR)	Can be used for the majority of soil types with low probability of causing salinity and sodicity risks, except for soils with extremely low permeability	No toxicity risk for most plants
70–85	Low Restriction required (LR)	It should be used in light-texture or moderate permeability soils; recommended to avoid its use in soils with high clay levels	Avoid salt-sensitive plants
55–70	Moderate Restriction required (MR)	May be used in moderate to high soil permeability values of soils	Plants with moderate tolerance to salts may be grown
40–55	High Restriction required (HR)	May be used in soils with high permeability	It can be used for plants with moderate to high salt tolerance
0–40	Severe Restriction required (SR)	Should be avoided its use for irrigation under normal conditions	Plants with a high tolerance to salt should be irrigated only, except water with extremely low levels of Na⁺, Cl⁻, and HCO⁻₃

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Table 4. Descriptive statistics of major ions and miscellaneous chemical parameters (unit=mg/L except pH)

Parameters	Min	Max	Mean	SD	Maximum allowable limit (Ayres and Westcot, 1985)	% above standard
pH	7.2	8.2	7.5	0.32	6–9	0
Ca²⁺	22	325	86.8	71.1	<400	0
Mg²⁺	8	160	43.5	34.1	<60	16
K⁺	0.6	22	3.79	5.59	<20	0
SO₄²⁻	8.9	99	33.3	22.1	<960	0
Cl⁻	7.6	74	33.3	6.9	<106.5	0
NO₃⁻	15.2	37.1	20.5	5.4	<30	32
NO₂⁻	0.01	0.18	0.06	0.044	<1.6	0
HCO₃⁻	103.7	433.1	280	98.6	<610	0
NH₄⁺	0.12	0.45	0.21	0.09	<5	0
PO₄³⁻	0.003	1.02	0.14	0.26	<2	0

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Table 5. Descriptive statistics and recommended maximum levels of heavy metal concentration in water used for irrigation

Parameters (mg/L)	Min.	Max.	Mean	Std.	Maximum limit (Ayers and Westcot, 1985)	Samples exceed Standard (%)
Fe	0.002	2.38	0.68	0.68	5	0
Cu	0.0009	0.01	0.0033	0.0025	0.2	0
Pb	0.00001	0.016	0.0027	0.0034	5	0
Cr	0.000003	0.012	0.0009	0.002	0.1	0
Zn	0.001	0.6	0.076	0.12	2	0
Ni	0.0012	0.06	0.035	0.374	0.2	0
As	0.0001	0.064	0.0039	0.013	0.1	0

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Table 6. Descriptive statistics of irrigation water quality parameters and the calculated indices

Parameters	Sample range
Parameters	Min.	Max.	Mean	Std.	Standard Range	Classification	% of samples with standard
EC (µS/cm)	306	2,711	1,012.4	647	<250	Excellent	0
					250–750	Good	48
					750–2,250	Permissible	40
					2,250–4,000	Doubtful	12
TDS (mg/L)	195.8	1,735	647.9	414.1	<1,000	Non saline	80
					1,000–3,000	Slightly saline	20
					3,000–10,000	Moderately saline	0
					>10,000	Very saline	0
TH (mg/L)	87.9	1,470.5	395.8	275	<75	Soft	0
					75–150	Moderate	8
					150–300	Hard	32
					>300	Very hard	60
SAR (meq/L)	0.28	3.51	1.33	0.88	<10	Excellent	100
					10–18	Good	0
					18–26	Doubtful	0
					>26	Unsuitable	0
RSC (meq/L)	−28.3	9.3	−2	6.95	<1.25	Good	80
					1.25–2.5	Medium	4
					>2.5	Unsuitable	16
Na%	10.5	57.8	24.8	10	<20	Excellent	40
					20–40	Good	56
					40–60	Permissible	4
					60–80	Doubtful	0
					>80	Unsuitable	0
KI (meq/L)	0.11	1.34	0.35	0.24	<1	Suitable	96
KI (meq/L)	0.11	1.34	0.35	0.24	>1	Unsuitable	4
PI%	28	89	50.6	15.6	<25	Unsuitable	0
					25–75	Moderate	12
					>75	Suitable	88
MR%	8.6	71	46	13.7	<50	Suitable	68
MR%	8.6	71	46	13.7	>50	Unsuitable	32
PS (meq/L)	0.31	2.8	1.3	0.77	<5	Excellent to good	100
					5–10	Good to injurious	0
					>10	Injurious to Un satisfactory	0

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Table 7. Irrigation water quality index results of water samples

Sample points	W_iQ_i (EC)	W_iQ_i (SAR)	W_iQ_i (Na⁺)	W_iQ_i (Cl⁻)	W_iQ_i (HCO₃⁻)	∑W_iQ_i	∑W_i	IWQI
Sb1	19.8	3.3	3.6	3.4	16.0	46.1	1	46.1
Db1	18.6	3.3	15.9	3.4	18.9	60.0	1	60.0
Db2	18.7	3.3	18.4	3.4	3.5	47.3	1	47.3
Db3	18.1	3.3	18.0	18.4	3.5	61.3	1	61.3
Sb2	17.5	3.3	19.3	19.2	17.5	76.9	1	76.9
Db4	18.9	3.3	3.6	3.4	3.5	32.7	1	32.7
Db5	18.8	15.6	7.5	18.9	12.2	73.1	1	73.1
Db6	8.4	16.9	3.6	18.9	3.5	51.3	1	51.3
Db7	8.8	18.0	12.0	3.4	3.5	45.7	1	45.7
Db8	10.7	18.0	13.5	3.4	3.5	49.1	1	49.1
Db9	18.2	15.3	14.7	3.4	9.7	61.3	1	61.3
Db10	17.7	3.3	3.6	18.3	12.6	55.5	1	55.5
Sb3	15.9	3.3	3.6	19.2	9.5	51.4	1	51.4
Sb4	18.6	3.3	3.6	3.4	13.3	42.2	1	42.2
Sb5	12.3	3.3	19.1	19.4	10.5	64.5	1	64.5
Sb6	17.4	3.3	3.6	3.4	11.3	39.0	1	39.0
Sb7	16.4	3.3	3.6	3.4	10.0	36.6	1	36.6
Sb8	16.9	3.3	3.6	3.4	10.4	37.5	1	37.5
Sb9	17.8	3.3	3.6	3.4	11.8	39.9	1	39.9
Sb10	13.1	3.3	18.5	18.4	13.1	66.4	1	66.4
Sb11	18.6	3.3	3.6	18.7	12.1	56.3	1	56.3
Sb12	20.0	3.3	3.6	3.4	14.9	45.2	1	45.2
Sb13	20.5	3.3	3.6	3.4	16.8	47.6	1	47.6
Sb14	18.4	3.3	3.6	3.4	11.1	39.7	1	39.7
Db11	11.3	18.9	14.2	19.2	3.5	67.1	1	67.1

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