Qi-fa Sun; Bing Lu; Chuan-lei Lu; Yuan Yang; Xu Xie; Lin Guo; Chen Hu; Xu Wang

doi:10.26599/JGSE.2026.9280067

doi: 10.26599/JGSE.2026.9280067

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出版历程
- 收稿日期: 2024-11-12
- 录用日期: 2025-06-30
- 网络出版日期: 2025-11-20
- 刊出日期: 2026-03-15

Health risk assessment of Fluoride and Cadmium enrichment in rural drinking groundwater in Shanxi Province, China

Qi-fa Sun^{1, 2, 3, 4},
Bing Lu^{1, 2
, ,},
Chuan-lei Lu^{1, 2
, ,},
Yuan Yang¹,
Xu Xie¹,
Lin Guo^{1, 3},
Chen Hu^{1, 3},
Xu Wang^{1, 3}

1.
Harbin Center for Integrated Natural Resources Survey, China Geological Survey, Harbin 150086, China
2.
Observation and Research Station of Earth Critical Zone in Black Soil, Ministry of Natural Resources, Harbin 150086, China
3.
Northeast Geological Science and Technology Innovation Center, China Geological Survey, Shenyang 110034, China
4.
Key Laboratory of Groundwater Resources Development and Protection in the Songnen-Sanjiang Plain of Heilongjiang Province, Harbin 150086, China

More Information

Corresponding author: 2208408367@qq.com; 819070179@qq.com

摘要

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Abstract: Excessive levels of Fluoride (F⁻) and Cadmium (Cd) in drinking groundwater may pose health risks. This study assessed the health risks associated with F⁻ and Cd contamination in rural drinking groundwater sources in Wutai County, Shanxi Province, China, to support population health protection, water resource management, and environmental decision-making. Groundwater samples were collected and analyzed, and a Human Health Risk Model (HHRA) was applied to evaluate groundwater quality. The results showed that both contents of F⁻ and Cd in groundwater exceeded the Class III limits of China's national groundwater quality standard (GB/T 14848—2024). Fluoride levels met the Class V threshold, with enrichment area mainly located in the east part of the study area. Cadmium levels reached Class IV, with elevated concentrations primarily observed in the western and northwestern regions. Correlation analysis revealed that F⁻ showed weak or no correlation with other measured substances, indicating independent sources. Health risk assessment results indicated that F⁻ poses potential health risks to rural residents, while cadmium, due to its relatively low concentrations, does not currently present a significant health risk. Among different demographic groups, the health risk levels of F⁻ exposure followed the order: Infants >children >adult females >adult males. The findings highlight that fluoride is the primary contributor to health risks associated with groundwater consumption in the study area. Strengthened monitoring and prevention of F⁻ contamination are urgently needed. This research provides a scientific basis for the prevention and control of fluoride pollution in groundwater and offers practical guidance for safeguarding drinking water safety in rural China.
- Rural China /
- Groundwater quality /
- Fluoride /
- Cadmium /
- Source analysis /
- Health risk assessment

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Figure 1. Spatial distribution of groundwater sampling sites in the study area

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Figure 2. Stacked bar chart of single-indicator groundwater quality evaluation

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Figure 3. Spatial distribution map of F⁻

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Figure 4. Spatial distribution map of Cd

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Figure 5. Proportion of F⁻ and Cd in various types of water

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Figure 6. Health risk assessment map for infants

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Figure 7. Risk bar chart for different age and gender groups

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Figure 8. Comparison of health risks by population group and exposure route

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Table 1. Analytical methods and detection limits for groundwater quality parameters

Analyte	Analytical method	Detection limit (mg/L)
Na⁺	Ion chromatography	1
Ca²⁺	Acidic permanganate titrimetric method	4
Mg²⁺	Acidic permanganate titrimetric method	3
NH₄⁺	Ion chromatography	0.05
Cl^－	Ion chromatography	3
SO₄²⁻	Ion chromatography	3
NO₃⁻	Ion chromatography	0.01
NO₂⁻	Spectrophotometry	0.010
F⁻	Ion chromatography	0.05
Cu	Flame atomic absorption spectrophotometry	0.007
Zn	Flame atomic absorption spectrophotometry	0.003
Cd	Flame atomic absorption spectrophotometry	0.007
Ni	Flame atomic absorption spectrophotometry	0.012
Cr⁶⁺	Catalytic polarographic method	0.02
T Fe	Inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectrometry	0.05
Mn	Inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectrometry	0.05
H₂SiO₃	Silicon molybdenum yellow spectrophotometry	1.3
As	Hydride generation atomic fluorescence spectrometry	0.0005
Hg	Cold atomic absorption spectrophotometry	0.0001
COD_Mn	Acidic permanganate titrimetric method	0.4
CaCO₃	EDTA titrimetric method	5
TDS	Gravimetric method	—
pH	Glass-electrodes method	—
Sr	Inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectrometry	0.05
Se	Catalytic polarographic method	0.0005
Li	Ion chromatography	0.02
Al	Inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectrometry	0.005
Pb	Inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectrometry	0.3
Note: “—” indicates no applicable detection limit for the parameter.

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Table 2. Definitions and values of exposure assessment parameters.

Parameter Meaning		Value				Unit
Parameter Meaning		Children	Females	Males	Infants
EF	Exposure frequency	365	365	365^b	365	d/a
BW	Average body weight	32.02^a	60.4^a	69.55^a	7.68^a	kg
ABS	Gastrointestinal absorption coefficient	0.5^c	0.5^c	0.5^c	0.5^c
IR	Daily water intake	1.5^b	2^e	2^e	0.65^b	L/d
ED	Exposure duration	6^b	30^b	30^b	0.5^d	a
SA	Body surface areas	9035.2	1600^a	1700^a	3416	cm²
AT	Average exposure time	2190	10950	10950	182.5^b	d
EV	Bathing frequency	1^b				time/d
ET	Bath time	0.167^c				h/d
CF	Unit conversion factor	0.002^b				L/cm³
KP	Dermal adsorption	0.001^b				cm/h
a Data source: The State Council of the People's Republic of China (2021). b Data source: Tian et al. (2020a). c Data source: Sun et al. (2024c). d Data source: Tian et al. (2020c). e Data source: The National Bureau of Statistics of the People's Republic of China (2003).

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Table 3. Single index evaluation results of groundwater quality

Indicator	Class I	Class II	Class III	Class IV	Class V
Colour	100%	0%	0%	0%	0%
Odor	100%	0%	0%	0%	0%
Turbidity	58%	0%	0%	37%	5%
Visible objects	100%	0%	0%	0%	0%
pH	87%	0%	0%	11%	3%
Al	0%	92%	8%	0%	0%
Mn	97%	0%	3%	0%	0%
Cu	100%	0%	0%	0%	0%
Zn	97%	3%	0%	0%	0%
Cl⁻	100%	0%	0%	0%	0%
SO₄²⁻	95%	3%	0%	0%	3%
CaCO₃	29%	66%	3%	3%	0%
TDS	79%	18%	3%	0%	0%
COD	87%	11%	3%	0%	0%
As	100%	0%	0%	0%	0%
Cd	92%	0%	0%	8%	0%
Cr⁶⁺	82%	16%	3%	0%	0%
Pb	100%	0%	0%	0%	0%
Hg	100%	0%	0%	0%	0%
Se	100%	0%	0%	0%	0%
F⁻	13%	68%	13%	3%	3%
NO₃⁻	100%	0%	0%	0%	0%
NH₄⁺	68%	0%	32%	0%	0%
Na⁺	100%	0%	0%	0%	0%
NO₂⁻	0%	92%	8%	0%	0%
Ni	100%	0%	0%	0%	0%

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Table 4. Correlation matrix of groundwater hydrochemical parameters

	t.d	CaCO₃	TDS	pH	Ca²⁺	Mg²⁺	SO₄²⁻	F⁻	Cd	Sr
t.d	1
CaCO₃	−0.072	1
TDS	−0.06	0.990^**	1
pH	−0.108	−0.322	−0.371^*	1
Ca²⁺	0.01	0.931^**	0.962^**	−0.505^**	1
Mg²⁺	−0.122	0.840^**	0.779^**	0.018	0.593^**	1
SO₄²⁻	−0.034	0.734^**	0.785^**	−0.596^**	0.884^**	0.354	1
F⁻	0.032	−0.034	−0.013	−0.046	0.088	−0.192	0.224	1
Cd	−0.016	0.137	0.082	0.307	−0.009	0.25	−0.067	−0.168	1
Sr	−0.002	0.795^**	0.835^**	−0.570^**	0.914^**	0.412^*	0.953^**	0.237	0.085	1
Notes: ** At the 0.01 level (bilateral), there is a significant correlation. * At the 0.05 level (bilateral), there is a significant correlation. t.d- turbidity degree. TDS- Total Dissolved Solids.

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Table 5. Statistical summary of hazard coefficient for Cd

Group	Males	Females	Children	Infants
HI_derm-water	0.0008	0.0008	0.0089	0.0066
HI_oral-water	0.2272	0.2616	0.3701	0.6686
HI	0.2279	0.2624	0.3790	0.6752

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Table 6. Statistical summary of hazard coefficient of F⁻

Group	Males	Females	Children	Infants
HI_derm-water	0.004	0.005	0.051	0.037
HI_oral-water	1.293	1.489	2.106	3.806
HI	1.297	1.494	2.157	3.843

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