Shuai-chao Wei; Wei Zhang; Ruo-xi Yuan; Feng Liu; Long Li; Xiao-xue Yan

doi:10.26599/JGSE.2026.9280104

doi: 10.26599/JGSE.2026.9280104

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出版历程
- 收稿日期: 2025-11-19
- 录用日期: 2026-05-28
- 网络出版日期: 2026-07-25

Distribution and controlling mechanisms of rare earth elements in geothermal waters of Xiamen, Southeastern China

Shuai-chao Wei^{1, 2, 3},
Wei Zhang^{1, 2},
Ruo-xi Yuan^{1, 2},
Feng Liu^{1, 2},
Long Li^{1, 2},
Xiao-xue Yan^{1, 2
, ,}

1.
Institute of Hydrogeology and Environmental Geology, Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences, Shijiazhuang 050061, China
2.
Technology Innovation Center for Geothermal & Hot Dry Rock Exploration and Development, Ministry of Natural Resources, Shijiazhuang 050061, China
3.
Key Laboratory of Karst Georesources and Environment, Ministry of Education, College of Resources and Environmental Engineering, Guizhou University, Guiyang 550025, China

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Corresponding author: yanxue0928@126.com

摘要

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Abstract: Rare Earth Elements (REEs) are effective tracers of fluid–rock interaction and fluid mixing in geothermal systems, but their behavior in coastal geothermal waters remains poorly constrained owing to the combined effects of seawater intrusion, high ionic strength, and complex ligand competition. In this study, five geothermal water samples from the Xiamen coastal geothermal system, southeastern China, were characterized by hydrochemical analysis, Post-Archean Australian Shale (PAAS)-normalized REE patterns, anomaly indices, and PHREEQC speciation modeling to constrain the distribution and controls of dissolved REEs. Total dissolved REE concentrations (∑REE) range from 0.044 μg/L to 1.651 μg/L, with higher values in coastal waters than in the inland geothermal end-member. All samples show the fractionation pattern light rare earth elements (LREEs) > Middle Rare Earth Elements (MREEs) > Heavy Rare Earth Elements (HREEs), whereas PAAS-normalized patterns indicate relative HREE enrichment and generally negative Ce anomalies. Eu anomalies vary systematically from positive in the inland geothermal water to weak or absent in coastal waters. Regional comparison suggests that deep water–rock interaction controls the overall REE source and abundance levels, whereas seawater mixing primarily modifies REE fractionation, anomaly signatures, and aqueous speciation. Speciation modeling further shows that REEs in coastal geothermal waters are mainly associated with fluoride-, sulfate-, and carbonate-bearing complexes, whereas carbonate complexes dominate in the inland sample. Overall, REE behavior in the Xiamen system is governed by the coupled effects of water–rock interaction and seawater mixing, providing new insight into REE migration and fractionation in fault-controlled coastal geothermal environments.
- Coastal geothermal water /
- Rare earth elements (REEs) /
- Seawater mixing /
- Water–rock interaction /
- REE complexation

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Figure 1. Regional geothermal and geological framework of the study

Notes: (A)-Distribution of hot springs and geothermal wells in southeastern China classified by geothermal water temperature; (B)-Spatial distribution of granites and volcanic rocks of different emplacement ages in Guangdong and Fujian provinces (geothermal water data from Guangdong are compiled from Zhang et al., 2023); (C)-Locations of geothermal water sampling sites in Xiamen investigated in this study. XM, Xiamen; FS, Fengshun; HZ, Huizhou; SZ, Shenzhou; XZ, Xinzhou; MM, Maoming.

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Figure 2. Piper diagram of geothermal waters in the Xiamen study area

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Figure 3. Relationship between Cl⁻ and Br⁻ concentrations in geothermal waters from the Xiamen study area.

Note: Groundwater and seawater end-member data used for comparison were taken from Liu et al. (2022a)

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Figure 4. PAAS-normalized rare earth element (REE) distribution patterns of geothermal waters: (A) geothermal water samples from the study area; (b) Sm_N/Nd_N–Sm_N/Yb_N ratios of geothermal waters; (c) seawater from the Taiwan Strait; (d) coastal geothermal waters from Guangdong Province; (e) inland geothermal waters from Guangdong Province; (f) granitic rocks from Guangdong and Fujian provinces. Inland GD, inland geothermal waters in Guangdong; coastal GD, coastal geothermal waters in Guangdong.

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Figure 5. Relationships between total rare earth element concentrations (∑REE) in geothermal waters from the study area and (A) pH, (B) temperature (T), (C) HCO₃⁻ + CO₃²⁻, (D) Cl⁻, (E) F⁻, (F) SO₄²⁻, and (G) Mn concentrations

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Figure 6. Silica–enthalpy mixing model for estimating reservoir temperature and cold-water mixing ratios of geothermal waters from Xiamen.

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Figure 7. Gibbs diagram of geothermal water samples from the study area

Notes: (A)-Relationship between total dissolved solids (TDS) and Na⁺/(Na⁺ + Ca²⁺) (modified after (Wei et al. 2025)); (B)- Relationship between total dissolved solids (TDS) and Cl⁻/(Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻).

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Figure 8. Relationships between Mn concentrations and (A) Ce/Ce* and (B) Eu/Eu* in geothermal waters from the study area

Notes: Ce/Ce*sea and Eu/Eu*sea were calculated based on Tong, 2024, whereas Ce/Ce*granite and Eu/Eu*granite were calculated using data from Xue, 2018; Ling et al. 2006.

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Figure 9. PHREEQC-calculated aqueous speciation of representative rare earth elements in geothermal waters from the Xiamen study area: (A) La, (B) Gd, and (C) Yb

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Figure 10. Variations in TDS(A), pH(B), T(°C)(C), HCO₃⁻(D), and Cl⁻ concentrations(E) in geothermal waters from the Xiamen study area

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Figure 11. Conceptual hydrogeochemical model illustrating geothermal fluid evolution, seawater mixing, hydrogeological interfaces, and rare earth element controlling mechanisms in the Xiamen coastal geothermal system.

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Table 1. The hydrochemical characteristics of geothermal waters in Xiamen (except for Mn, in μg/L; all other ions and TDS in mg/L). XLW, Xinglinwan; NA, Neian; FN, Fengnan; DS, Dongshan; HP, Houpu. CBE, charge balance error.

Sampling ID	XLW	NA	FN	DS	HP
T (°C)	80.20	47.00	54.50	52.90	44.50
pH	6.68	6.92	7.23	7.01	8.56
Na⁺	3,602.00	1,758.00	628.00	5,106.00	104.00
K⁺	97.10	61.60	13.40	211.00	1.63
Ca²⁺	1,405.00	1,017.00	231.00	2,878.00	5.64
Mg²⁺	133.00	2.90	0.21	51.00	0.05
HCO₃⁻	64.00	31.10	30.50	43.90	85.30
CO₃²⁻	5.00	5.00	5.00	5.00	6.00
Cl⁻	8,005.00	4,593.00	1,228.00	1,1837.00	17.90
SO₄²⁻	518.00	239.00	130.00	365.00	92.40
NO₃⁻	0.06	0.06	0.06	0.06	0.06
F⁻	2.65	2.55	3.90	2.48	11.50
Br⁻	27.20	15.20	4.25	43.50	0.05
Mn	2,169.00	315.00	3.09	1763.00	2.17
SiO₂	100.00	83.08	62.38	90.00	58.62
TDS	14,030.00	7,816.00	2,346.00	2,0740.00	334.00
Water type	Cl-Na·Ca	Cl-Na·Ca	Cl-Na·Ca	Cl-Na·Ca	SO₄·HCO₃-Na
CBE(%)	0.58	−2.30	1.35	4.67	2.28

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Table 2. The results of REEs of geothermal waters in Xiamen /μg/L

Sampling ID	XLW	NA	FN	DS	HP
La	0.196	0.005	0.010	0.593	0.017
Ce	0.197	0.002	0.023	0.289	0.031
Pr	0.015	<0.002	0.003	0.095	0.003
Nd	0.065	0.013	0.005	0.395	0.014
Sm	0.014	0.002	<0.002	0.053	0.002
Eu	0.004	<0.002	<0.002	0.013	<0.002
Gd	0.015	0.002	<0.002	0.070	0.002
Tb	0.003	<0.002	<0.002	0.010	<0.002
Dy	0.009	<0.002	0.005	0.039	0.003
Ho	0.005	0.003	<0.002	0.007	<0.002
Er	0.009	<0.002	0.002	0.024	0.002
Tm	0.002	<0.002	<0.002	0.005	<0.002
Yb	0.013	0.008	0.002	0.041	<0.002
Lu	0.005	0.003	<0.002	0.017	<0.002
∑REE	0.552	0.044	0.057	1.651	0.080
Y	0.366	0.229	0.067	0.642	0.010
δCe	0.725	0.206	0.961	0.276	0.993
δEu	1.290	2.345	4.691	0.980	2.345

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