Samar A El-Mekkawi; Sh K Amin

doi:10.26599/JGSE.2026.9280089

doi: 10.26599/JGSE.2026.9280089

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出版历程
- 收稿日期: 2025-12-13
- 录用日期: 2026-06-25
- 网络出版日期: 2026-07-27

Remediation technologies for heavy metal-contaminated water resources

Samar A El-Mekkawi^{1
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Sh K Amin¹

1.
Chemical Engineering and Pilot Plant Department, National Research Centre, Egypt

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Corresponding author: samarelmekkawi@hotmail.com

摘要

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Abstract: Heavy metals, including arsenic, lead, cadmium, chromium, mercury, copper, nickel, and zinc, are common contaminants in global water resources. Their occurrence stems from both natural geogenic and anthropogenic sources, such as industrial, mining, or urban activities. Heavy metals can be found in groundwater due to geogenic mobilization and leaching from ore deposits. They can also be found in streams and lakes impacted by mine drainage, industrial effluents, agricultural runoff, and urban stormwater. Elevated concentrations pose risks to human health and ecosystems, necessitating monitoring, remediation, and the safe management of generated residuals. A variety of technologies exist for heavy-metal removal. The selection and use of these technologies depend on contaminant concentration, speciation, and available resources. In this review article, the latest technologies for heavy-metal removal are presented and discussed. The availability and maturity of each technique, energy demand, management of generated residual, environmental impact, and recommended applications are discussed. Algal bioremediation and constructed wetlands are the most sustainable techniques due to their ecosystem benefits, carbon capture, and lowest energy consumption, while the most efficient industrial techniques are membrane technologies and ion-exchange systems due to their high metal selectivity and purity; however, the main restrictions are high cost and an energy-intensive nature. The most distinctive approach involves hybrid systems, which offer a more resilient and sustainable alternative by integrating complementary mechanisms that enhance flux stability, improve selectivity, and reduce energy consumption, such as the combination of Reverse Osmosis with Membrane Distillation (RO-MD) and Reverse Osmosis with Pressure Retarded Osmosis (RO-PRO). The hybrid approach, in various sequences, enhances efficiency, scalability, and ecological restoration.
- Adsorption /
- Electrocoagulation /
- Membrane technology /
- Algal bioremediation /
- Hybrid treatment systems.

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Figure 1. Global heavy metal contamination sources and pathways

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Figure 2. The concentration ranges by sources of arsenic accumulation in water bodies.

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Figure 3. The recent techniques for heavy-metal removal from contaminated water resources

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Figure 4. Adsorption mechanism by (a) ion exchange, (b) surface complexation, (c) surface precipitation

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Figure 5. Coagulation and precipitation mechanism for the treatment of water contaminated with heavy metals

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Figure 6. Lead-lag configuration system for the ion-exchange technique

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Figure 7. Electrochemical water treatment

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Figure 8. Comparing OPEX and the environmental impact of the techniques

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Figure 9. Schematic diagrams of in-situ and ex-situ approaches for the treatment of contaminated groundwater Notes: (a) in-situ injection, (b) in-situ permeable reactive barrier, (c) in-situ air sparging, (d) ex-situ pump and treat technique (Liu et al., 2024)

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Table 1. Major heavy metals, their main sources, human health effects, and environmental impacts

Heavy metals	Main sources	Effects on human health	Environmental impact	References
Arsenic (As)	Natural rocks, mining, pesticides, and contaminated groundwater	Skin diseases, cancer, cardiovascular diseases, and diabetes	Groundwater pollution and its toxicity to aquatic organisms	Azar and Vajargah (2023); Daripa et al. (2023); Garcia-Vargas and Cebrian (2023); Guo et al. (2024)
Lead (Pb)	Batteries, paints, vehicle emissions, and industrial wastewater	Neurotoxicity, impaired cognitive development, reduced IQ in children, and kidney, heart, and blood vessel damage	Bioaccumulation and toxicity of aquatic organisms	Prakash and Verma (2021); Popick (2022); Azar and Vajargah (2023); Garcia-Vargas and Cebrian (2023)
Cadmium (Cd)	Mining, fertilizers, electroplating, and industrial wastewater	Kidney damage, bone disorders, and cancer risk	Soil toxicity and reduced microbial activity	Prakash and Verma (2021); Naz et al. (2022); Daripa et al. (2023)
Mercury (Hg)	Coal combustion, mining activities, and industrial effluents	Acute neurotoxicity, cognitive decline, sensory impairment, and developmental disorders caused by methylmercury	Biomagnification through aquatic food chains and accumulation in fish tissues	Chamoli and Karn (2024); Zafar et al. (2024); Oros (2025)
Chromium (Cr VI)	Tanneries, textile industries, electroplating, and industrial waste	Cancer, liver, and kidney damage	Toxic to aquatic organisms and plants	Hossini et al. (2022);Azar and Vajargah (2023)
Nickel (Ni)	Metallurgical industries, mining operations, and battery manufacturing	Skin allergies, respiratory problems, and carcinogenic effects	Toxic effects on aquatic ecosystems	Genchi et al. (2020); Naz et al. (2022)
Copper (Cu)	Industrial waste, pipe corrosion, and agricultural runoff	Gastrointestinal distress and liver and kidney damage at elevated exposure levels	Reduced oxygen uptake in fish	Naz et al. (2023); Kwong (2024)
Zinc (Zn)	Galvanizing processes, municipal and industrial wastewater, and traffic-related sources	Gastrointestinal effects at excessive concentrations and metabolic disturbances	Toxic to fish and aquatic organisms	Popick (2022); Naz et al. (2023); Kwong (2024)

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Table 2. Removal efficiencies utilizing different types of adsorbents on a lab scale

Adsorbent	Metal	Feed conc. (mg/L)	Contact time (h)	Adsorbent capacity (mg/g)	Adsorbent dose (g/L)	pH	Removal efficiency	Reference
Activated carbon derived from green algae Spirogyra	Cu²⁺	200	0.3	98.82	0.1	5.28	95.09%	Djezzar et al. (2024)
Activated Carbon Produced from Sargassum ssp.	Cr⁶⁺	60	24	46	1	5	65%	Alvarez-Galvan et al. (2022)
Activated Carbon Produced from Sargassum ssp.	Cr⁶⁺	60	24	46	1	2	98%	Alvarez-Galvan et al. (2022)
Silica-coated Cu_0.5Mg_0.5Fe₂O₄ nanoparticles	Zn²⁺	0.2	36	32.57	2.5	7	97%	Irfan et al. (2023)
Silica-coated Cu_0.5Mg_0.5Fe₂O₄ nanoparticles	Pb²⁺	0.2	36	25.66	2.5	7	92%	Irfan et al.(2023)
Electrolytic manganese residue + distillers' grain biochar composite (EDB)	Sb³⁺	50	24	11.5	2.5	7	60%	Wei et al.(2024)
	Sb⁵⁺	50	24	8.4	2.5	7	40%
	As³⁺	50	24	16.5	2.5	7	84%
	As⁵⁺	50	24	18.5	2.5	7	90%

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Table 3. Systematic evaluation of membrane technologies for heavy metal removal

Parameter	UF (0.01–0.1 µm Polymeric membrane)	NF (0.5–2 nm Polymeric membrane)	RO (0.1–0.5 nm Polymeric membrane)	Ceramic membrane (UF/NF)
Treatment efficiency (metal rejection)	Less than 10% rejection, and 90%–99% by surface modification	90%–99% rejection of divalent heavy metals, and lower efficiency (30%–70%) for monovalent	99% rejection for all dissolved metals	Its performance is similar to UF; surface modification is necessary to achieve 85%–99%
Operating pressure (bar)	1–5	5–20	10–80	Similar to UF, while a hollow fiber membrane behaves as NF
Energy consumption (kWh/m³)	0.1–0.4	0.3–1.0	0.5–2.0 for brackish water,	0.2–1.0
OPEX (USD/m³)	0.5–1.5	2–6	3–10	1.5–4
Applicable contaminant concentrations (mg/L)	1–500	10–500	>1,000High concentration requires high pressure	1–1,000depending on pore size and surface modification
Selectivity	None without surface modification	Charge-based selectivity as divalent and monovalent	Reject all solutes	Tunable via surface modification
Fouling resistance	Requires frequent cleaning due to its susceptibility to biofouling	Similar to UF	High fouling tendency, extensive pretreatment is required	Fouling is reversible and easier to clean
Lifetime (years)	3–7	5–7	5–7	10–20
Scale-up potential	A capacity of >10,000 m³/d is widely used in water treatment	A capacity of >100,000 m³/d is widely used in municipal wastewater treatment	A capacity of >500,000 m³/d is widely used in desalination	A capacity of >100,000 m³/d is widely used in industrial wastewater treatment
Recommended application	As a pretreatment before NFor RO	Polishing after chemical precipitation or divalent heavy metals removal	Final polishing, and capable of removing monovalent, arsenic, and Cr(IV)	Aggressive waste streams, such as low pH, high temperature, and oily contaminated water

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Table 4. Some factors affecting electrodeposition of Cu²⁺ from contaminated water

Feed conc. (g/L)	Stirring speed (rpm)	Electrode material	Current density	pH	Temp (°C)	Removal (%)	Cost and energy consumption	Reference
0.5	3 m/s	Anode: RuO₂-coated Ti tubeCathode: Pure Ti sheet	12 A/dm²	1	-⁽¹⁾	97.4%	Energy consumption 5.6 kWh/kg	Ning et al. (2019)
9.07	1,000	Anode: Ruthenium, Iridium, titanium netCathode: Graphite	75 mA/cm²	2	15	88%	-⁽¹⁾	Gu et al. (2020)
10	700	Platinum electrodes	2 A	1.8	24	98%	Constant voltage operation has anestimated cost of 1.43 EUR/kg Cu.	Santaolalla et al. (2020)
0.0318–19.0638	700 for catholyte	Anode: Zinc meshCathode: Copper	1 mA/s. cm²	4–6	18–23	90%	Energy density of 4.9 kWh/m³, Power density of 546 W/m²	Wang et al. (2020)
0.43	70	Anode: Hollow cylindrical platinum meshCathode: Copper	190 mA	1.74	37	33.59%	-⁽¹⁾	Morais Nepel et al. (2020)
0.001	-⁽¹⁾	Anode: Saturated calomel electrode (SCE), Cathode: Reticulated glassy carbon (RVC)	0.5 V	3	40	91.3%	-⁽¹⁾	Xie et al. (2026)
1	1,000	Anode and cathode plates: Iridium-, tantalum-, and titanium plates	75 mA/cm²	4	21	94.53%	-⁽¹⁾	Xu et al. (2025)
Note: (1) Not mentioned

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Table 5. Comparison of electrochemical techniques

Aspect	Electrocoagulation	Electrodialysis	Electrodeposition
Definition	The sacrificial electrodes generate coagulant species in situ, removing contaminants	A membrane-based electrochemical separation process using an electric field, which selectively transports ions through ion-exchange membranes	An electrochemical process where dissolved metal ions are reduced and deposited as solid metal on an electrode surface
Principle	DC dissolves the metal of the electrodes to form metal hydroxide, which adsorb the pollutants	The electric potential drives cations and anions through selective membranes toward opposite electrodes, separating ions from water.	Metal cations gain electrons at the cathode and are reduced to elemental metal
Materials	Iron or aluminum electrodes	Ion-exchange membranes; electrodes (Ti, graphite, stainless steel)	Cathode (stainless steel, copper, graphite); anode (inert or sacrificial).
Target metals	Pb, Cr, Cd, Cu, Zn, Ni, As	Pb, Cd, Cu, Cr, Ni, Zn, As (ionic species)	Cu, Ag, Ni, Zn, Cd, Pb (mainly recoverable metals)
Removal efficiency	80%–99% depending on current density and pH	70%–99% for dissolved ionic metals	90%–99% for metals suitable for electrodeposition
Energy consumption	Increases with current density	0.3–5 kWh/m³	highly dependent on metal concentration
Cost, USD/m³	0.02–3.2	0.25–1.2	Rarely reported; evaluated based on metal recovery value
Environmental impact	Sludge disposal is required	Membrane production and electricity footprint impact the environment	Favorable if metal recovery offsets impact
Applications	Industrial wastewater, mine drainage, mixed heavy-metal streams	Brackish water, selective metal removal, polishing step	Metal plating wastewater, mining effluents, and metal recovery systems

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Table 6. Some of the algal strains used to remove heavy metals

Metal	Algal species	Operation conditions	Removal efficiency	Reference
Pb²⁺	Chlorella vulgaris	Initial inoculum 1mg/L, pH 6 at 30°CCa-alginate immobilized algal cells, algal dosage of 3 g/L, pH 5, 30 min at room temperature.	93.2% 90%	Manzoor et al. (2020)Kwarciak-Kozłowska, and Sławik-Dembiczak (2021); Yadav et al. (2022)
Cd²⁺	Scenedesmus obliquus	Initial Cd²⁺ conc 3.0 mg/L, algae conc of 0.8 g/L, 2 h, pH = 6.0	92.7%	Ma et al. (2021)
Al³⁺	Spirulina platensis	Treated microalgae with sulphuric acid enhances the metal removal at pH 6 for 40 min, initial adsorbent conc of 2.5 g/L, at room temperature, initial metal conc of 50 mg/L	55% for untreated microalgae95% for treated microalgae	Almomani and Bhosale (2021)
Cr(VI)	Anabaena variabilis	Initial inoculum 2 mg/L, after 48 h at pH 7.5 at 25°C for 48 h.	75%–91%	Hossain and Okino (2024)

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Table 7. Comparative evaluation of heavy metal removal technologies

Dimensions	Adsorption	Coagulation and precipitation	Membrane filtration (NF/RO)	Electrocoagulation
Treatment efficiency (%)	95–99(Effective even at low concentrations)	90–99.9(Ideal pH, high concentrations)	> 99(Can reach less than 0.1 mg/L)	90–99(Improves at low concentrations)
Effective concentration range	Effective for low to very low concentrations(Less than 1 to 10 mg/L)	Best for medium to high concentrations (more than 10 to 50 mg/L)	Effective for all concentrations (especially low concentrations)	Medium to high(Better than chemical coagulation at low concentrations)
Operating cost (USD/m³)	1–5(Depending on the adsorbent types/regeneration)	0.9–1.3	2–10	1–4
Energy consumption (kWh/m³)	Low to moderate(0.1–0.5)	Very low(0.05–0.2)	High(0.5–2)	Moderate to high(1–5)
Chemical/reagent consumption	Moderate(Adsorbent replacement/regeneration)	High(Lime, Fe/Al salts)	Low(Mainly cleaning chemicals)	Low to moderate(Electrode consumed)
Sludge/by-product generation	Low(spent adsorbent)	High(Metal hydroxide sludge)	Low solids waste produces concentrated brine	Medium(Dense, mineral-rich sludge)
Sludge treatment cost	Low to moderate	High	Moderate(brine disposal)	Moderate
Process complexity	Moderate(adsorbent material management)	Low(simple operation)	High(pressure systems, fouling control)	Moderate(requires electrical control)
Sensitivity to pH	Moderate	High(critical parameter)	Low to moderate	Moderate
Scalability/Industrial maturity	Good(widespread)	Excellent(well-established)	Excellent(industrial but capital-intensive)	Growing(from pilot to industrial scale)
Key advantages	High efficiency at low concentrations	Low cost, simple, and effective for bulk removal	Highest separation efficiency	No need to add chemicals; generates a coagulant on-site
Key limitations	Cost of adsorbent/regeneration	High sludge, poor performance at low concentrations	High cost, fouling, energy consumption	Energy consumption, electrode consumption

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Table 8. Comparative evaluation of conventional and hybrid membrane systems

Criterion	Conventional Membrane Systems (UF/NF/RO)	Hybrid Membrane Systems (UF–RO, NF–RO, Adsorption–UF)	Key Limitation
Removal efficiency	High(RO: 95%–99%; NF: 70%–99%; UF: Indirect removal)	Very high(often ≥ 99% due to combined mechanisms)	Hybrid systems may show diminishing returns at very low contaminant concentrations
Selectivity	Limited (UF), Moderate (NF), Broad (RO)	Enhanced selectivity via combined size exclusion, adsorption, and electrostatic interactions	Process optimization is required to avoid over-treatment and inefficiency
Fouling tendency	High in NF/RO due to NOM, colloids, and scaling	Significantly reduced(UF pretreatment removes foulants)	Fouling not fully eliminated; secondary fouling may occur in pretreatment units
Flux stability	Declines over time due to fouling	Improved stability with slower flux decline	Performance depends strongly on upstream process control
Energy consumption	RO: 1–10 kWh/m³	Reduced by (10%–30)% (UF–RO); up to (40%–70)% in advanced hybrids (RO–MD/PRO)	Energy savings depend on system design and may not be realized in poorly optimized systems
Operating pressure	High(RO: 10–80 bar; NF: 4–30 bar)	Lower effective pressure due to improved feed quality	Additional pumping may be required for multi-stage systems
Chemical consumption	High(Frequent cleaning required)	Reduced(Lower cleaning frequency)	Chemical use may shift to the pretreatment stage rather than being eliminated
Membrane lifespan	Limited due to fouling and scaling	Extended due to reduced fouling load	Lifespan improvement depends on proper maintenance and operation
Operational cost (OPEX)	4.5–6.4 USD·m⁻³	Reduced by (15%–35)% depending on configuration	Savings may be offset by increased system complexity and control requirements
Capital cost (CAPEX)	Moderate(Single unit)	Higher(multi-unit integration required)	High initial investment may limit adoption in small-scale applications
Process complexity	Relatively simple operation	More complex(Requires optimization and integration)	Requires skilled operation, monitoring, and control systems
Scalability	High(Modular systems)	High, but requires system integration expertise	Scale-up may introduce operational instability if not properly designed
Environmental impact	Lower sludge than conventional treatment, but produces brine	Reduced chemical usage but still produces brine; better overall sustainability	Brine management remains a critical challenge
Suitability for complex wastewater	Limited performance due to fouling	Highly suitable(Handles high turbidity and mixed contaminants)	Performance sensitive to fluctuations in feed composition
Typical applications	Desalination, polishing, low turbidity water	Industrial wastewater, mine drainage, high fouling streams	Application-specific design required

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