Bo Gao; Jiang-tao He; Bao-nan He; Yan-jia Chu; Zhen Chen; Ji-chao Sun

doi:10.26599/JGSE.2026.9280103

doi: 10.26599/JGSE.2026.9280103

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出版历程
- 收稿日期: 2025-09-16
- 录用日期: 2026-03-16
- 网络出版日期: 2026-06-20

New Insights into Soda Water in Shallow Groundwater of the North China Plain

Bo Gao^{1, 2},
Jiang-tao He^{1, 2
, ,},
Bao-nan He^{1, 2},
Yan-jia Chu^{1, 2},
Zhen Chen^{1, 2},
Ji-chao Sun³

1.
Key Laboratory of Groundwater Conservation of Ministry of Water Resources (in preparation), China University of Geosciences (Beijing), Beijing 100083, China
2.
School of Water resources and Environment, China University of Geosciences (Beijing), Beijing 100083, China
3.
Institute of Hydrogeology and Environmental Geology, Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences, Shijiazhuang 050061, China

More Information

Corresponding author: jthe@cugb.edu.cn

摘要

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Abstract: Soda water in shallow aquifers represents a unique hydrochemical type, often enriched in arsenic (As), fluorine (F), iodine (I), and other components, while also acting as a critical driver of soil salinization. However, existing studies have failed to effectively distinguish between salinization (characterized by soluble salt accumulation) and alkalization (characterized by soda-alkali enrichment). The "New Insights" of this study do not rely on new data but derive from an in-depth excavation and interpretation of the 2006–2009 National Groundwater Pollution Survey dataset—the only authoritative background dataset covering the entire North China Plain. Focusing on shallow groundwater in the North China Plain, this study refines the identification criteria for soda water based on existing concepts, analyzes its spatial distribution characteristics, delineates typical zones, and conducts a preliminary investigation into the genetic differences across regions. Results show that when using the criterion—"HCO₃⁻ + CO₃²⁻ as dominant anions with [(HCO₃⁻ + CO₃²⁻) - (Ca²⁺ + Mg²⁺)] > 0 meq%"—combined with hydrochemical cluster analysis, soda water is primarily concentrated in two zones: The mountain-front discharge zone (Area A) and the runoff-ancient Yellow River channel zone (Area B). These two zones account for 88.48% of all soda water samples and exhibit distinct hydrochemical features. In Area A, groundwater has a simple anion composition dominated by HCO₃⁻, a median total dissolved solids (TDS) content of 501.15 mg/L, and elevated concentrations of F⁻ and NO₃⁻. In contrast, Area B is characterized by diverse anions (HCO₃⁻, SO₄²⁻, and Cl⁻), a higher median TDS (863.56 mg/L), and enrichment of reductive components including As, F⁻, I⁻, Fe, and Mn. Genetic analysis reveals that soda water in Area A forms through the combined effects of mineral weathering, dissolution, and calcite-dolomite precipitation. In contrast, groundwater in Area B evolves under calcite-dolomite precipitation controlled by evaporative concentration, with further modifications by microbial geochemical processes and agricultural activities. This study clarifies the spatial distribution patterns and genetic mechanisms of soda water in the North China Plain, laying a foundation for further research on its formation processes.
- Soda water /
- Zoning characteristics /
- SOM-KM clustering /
- North China Plain /
- Preliminary genetic analysis

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Figure 1. Zoning map of recharge, runoff and discharge areas (a) and hydrogeological section (b) of the North China Plain (Han et al. 2021)

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Figure 2. Hydrogeochemical Signatures of Soda Water vs. Non-Soda Water

a- Piper trilinear diagram for soda water; b- Piper trilinear diagram for non-soda water; c- Relationship between groundwater and TDS under different classification criteria; d- Relationship between soda degree and anion difference under different TDS contents; e- Relationship between major anion differences and TDS; f- Relationship between major cation differences and TDS.

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Figure 3. Box Plots of Associated Components in Soda Water vs. Non-Soda Water

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Figure 4. Spatial Distribution of Soda Water vs. Non-Soda Water in Unconfined Aquifers across the North China Plain

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Figure 5. Typification of Soda Water Distribution in the North China Plain

a- Groundwater system zoning map of the North China Plain (Zhang and Fei,2009); b- Landform classification map of the North China Plain (Hou and Liu, 2010); c- Spatial distribution map of SOM-KM clustering results; d- Plan view visualization result map; e- Clustering results of KM neurons; f- Typical regional division map.

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Figure 6. Intercomparison of Soda Water Hydrochemistry in Zone A vs. Zone B

a - Distribution map of shallow groundwater hydrochemical types in each zone; b - Relationship map between sodification degree and TDS; c - Relationship map between sodification degree and proportion of major anions.

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Figure 7. Box plots of major ions and associated components in soda water: Zone A vs. Zone B

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Figure 8. Relationship between Mineral Saturation Indices (SI) and TDS in soda water: Zone A (a) and Zone B (b)

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Figure 9. Gibbs diagram analysis of dominant hydrogeochemical processes: Zone A(a) groundwater vs. Zone B(b)

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Table 1. Synthesis of genetic mechanistic frameworks for Soda water formation

Genetic Model	Key Controls	Hydrogeological Settings	References
Deep groundwater circulation coupled with sulfate reduction	Calcium carbonate precipitation	Fault zones, tectonic activity, sluggish hydrodynamic conditionsSulfate reduction (SO₄²⁻ → HCO₃⁻ conversion)	(Cooper et al. 2006) (Chae et al. 2006) (Lepokurova, 2020)
Evaporation-induced salt accumulation	Calcium carbonate precipitation	Sand-clay interbedded layers, depression-dominated topographyHigh temperature, low humidity, slow groundwater flowEvaporative enrichment of salts	(Lei et al. 2022) (Shvartsev and Wang, 2006) (Deocampo, 2010)
Marine sediment leaching coupled with ion exchange	Ion exchange	Connate paleo-seawater in marine sedimentary formationsNa⁺-Ca²⁺ cation exchange	(Irén et al. 1997)
Crystalline rock weathering under water-rock equilibrium conditions	Weathering of aluminosilicate minerals	Aluminosilicate mineral dissolution, organic matter decompositionSeasonal water table fluctuationsSlow hydrodynamic circulation	(Azaria et al. 2023) (Dutova, 2020) (Lepokurova and Shvartsev, 2019) (Hanor et al. 2023)

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Table 2. Breakdown Analysis of Spatial Distribution Patterns for Soda Water Hydrochemical Clusters

Category	Proportion	Spatial Distribution	Component Concentrations	Hydrochemical Types	Summary
Cluster 1	70.74%	Mainly distributed in piedmont alluvial-proluvial fans and near the Yellow River paleochannel	TDS and main ion components have low concentrations; among them, pH, Ca²⁺, and Mn²⁺ concentrations are at medium levels	HCO₃-Na HCO₃-Ca·Mg HCO₃-Na·Ca HCO₃-Na·Mg	Low TDS Low Fe High Mn
Cluster 2	29.26%	Mainly distributed near the groundwater system in the lower reaches of the ancient Yellow River	TDS and main ion components have relatively high concentrations; among them, Mg²⁺, HCO₃⁻, Fe, and I⁻ concentrations are at relatively high levels	HCO₃·Cl-Na HCO₃-Na·Mg HCO₃·Cl-Na·Mg HCO₃·SO₄-Na·Mg	High TDS High Fe High I⁻

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Table 3. Comparative evaluation of key hydrochemical parameters in Soda water from unconfined aquifers: Zone A vs. Zone B across the North China Plain

Hydrochemical Index	The mountain-front discharge zone (A)				The runoff-ancient Yellow River channel zone (B)
Hydrochemical Index	Max	Min	Average	Median	Max	Min	Average	Median
the degree of soda(meq%)	58.23	0.06	14.28	11.22	55.14	0.02	13.96	11.15
TDS(mg/L)	2,069	68	584.78	501.15	2,863.71	326	989.87	863.56
pH	9.05	6.82	7.68	7.63	9	6.62	7.65	7.60
Eh	346.10	−245	69.31	57.70	704	−281	−13.44	−20.05
Proportion of soda water	28.34%				60.14%

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Table 4. Principal component analysis results and factor loading matrix

	F1	F2	F3	F4	F5
pH	−0.01	-0.81	−0.02	−0.03	−0.10
TDS	0.85	0.37	0.17	0.12	−0.05
TH	0.49	0.75	0.34	0.09	−0.05
Ca²⁺	0.13	0.68	0.47	0.28	0.01
Mg²⁺	0.61	0.63	0.22	−0.05	0.10
K⁺	0.02	0.09	−0.06	0.72	0.15
Na⁺	0.95	0.04	0.05	0.00	0.01
Cl⁻	0.78	0.12	0.23	0.13	0.06
SO₄²⁻	0.75	0.18	0.02	0.10	−0.04
HCO₃⁻	0.74	0.54	0.21	−0.04	−0.04
Fe	0.03	0.21	0.69	−0.07	0.06
Mn²⁺	0.26	0.09	0.82	−0.09	−0.08
As	0.03	0.05	0.00	−0.02	0.96
F⁻	0.69	−0.36	−0.02	−0.15	0.13
I⁻	0.49	0.32	−0.33	−0.36	−0.17
NO₃⁻	0.09	0.04	−0.06	0.70	−0.19
Eigenvalue	6.23	2.08	1.13	1.12	1.02
Variance Contribution Rate (%)	38.92	13.03	7.92	7.01	6.40
Cumulative Variance Contribution Rate (%)	38.92	51.94	59.86	66.87	73.27

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Table 5. Principal Component Analysis Results and Factor Loading Matrix

	F1	F2	F3	F4	F5
pH	−0.06	-0.61	0.34	0.15	0.15
TDS	0.98	−0.02	0.07	0.04	0.04
TH	0.62	0.66	0.28	0.07	0.07
Ca²⁺	−0.04	0.87	0.11	0.18	0.18
Mg²⁺	0.77	0.32	0.27	−0.02	−0.02
K⁺	−0.08	−0.04	0.18	−0.11	−0.11
Na⁺	0.94	−0.25	−0.00	0.01	0.01
Cl⁻	0.86	0.08	−0.05	0.08	0.08
SO₄²⁻	0.88	−0.11	−0.06	−0.05	−0.05
HCO₃⁻	0.79	0.03	0.28	0.04	0.04
Fe	0.11	0.03	0.19	0.71	0.71
Mn²⁺	0.08	0.16	0.72	−0.04	−0.04
As	−0.05	0.14	−0.15	0.79	0.79
F⁻	0.31	-0.61	−0.19	−0.26	−0.26
I⁻	0.42	−0.12	0.57	0.15	0.15
NO₃⁻	0.25	0.05	−0.09	0.21	0.21
Eigenvalue	5.49	2.40	1.22	1.17	1.17
Variance Contribution Rate (%)	34.30	14.98	7.61	7.31	7.31
Cumulative Variance Contribution Rate (%)	34.30	49.28	56.89	64.20	64.20

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